By Dr. Saul McLeod, published 2015 Show
Observation (watching what people do) would seem to be an obvious method of carrying out research in psychology. However, there are different types of observational methods and distinctions need to be made between:
In addition to the above categories observations can also be either overt/disclosed (the participants know they are being studied) or covert/undisclosed (the research keeps their real identity a secret from the research subjects, acting as a genuine member of the group). In general, observations are relatively cheap to carry out and few resources are needed by the researcher. However, they can often be very time consuming and longitudinal. Controlled ObservationControlled observations (usually a structured observation) are likely to be carried out in a psychology laboratory. The researcher decides where the observation will take place, at what time, with which participants, in what circumstances and uses a standardized procedure. Participants are randomly allocated to each independent variable group. Rather than writing a detailed description of all behavior observed, it is often easier to code behavior according to a previously agreed scale using a behavior schedule (i.e. conducting a structured observation). The researcher systematically classifies the behavior they observe into distinct categories. Coding might involve numbers or letters to describe a characteristic, or use of a scale to measure behavior intensity. The categories on the schedule are coded so that the data collected can be easily counted and turned into statistics. For example, Mary Ainsworth used a behavior schedule to study how infants responded to brief periods of separation from their mothers. During the Strange Situation procedure infant's interaction behaviors directed toward the mother were measured, e.g.
The observer noted down the behavior displayed during 15-second intervals and scored the behavior for intensity on a scale of 1 to 7.  Sometimes the behavior of participants is observed through a two-way mirror or they are secretly filmed. This method was used by Albert Bandura to study aggression in children (the Bobo doll studies). A lot of research has been carried out in sleep laboratories as well. Here electrodes are attached to the scalp of participants and what is observed are the changes in electrical activity in the brain during sleep (the machine is called an electroencephalogram – an EEG). Controlled observations are usually overt as the researcher explains the research aim to the group, so the participants know they are being observed. Controlled observations are also usually non-participant as the researcher avoids any direct contact with the group, keeping a distance (e.g. observing behind a two-way mirror). Strengths1. Controlled observations can be easily replicated by
other researchers by using the same observation schedule. This means it is easy to test for reliability. 2. The data obtained from structured observations is easier and quicker to analyze as it is quantitative (i.e. numerical) - making this a less time-consuming method compared to naturalistic observations. 3. Controlled observations are fairly quick to conduct
which means that many observations can take place within a short amount of time. This means a large sample can be obtained resulting in the findings being representative and having the ability to be generalized to a large population. Limitations1. Controlled observations can lack validity due to the
Hawthorne effect/demand characteristics. When participants know they are being watched they may act differently. Naturalistic ObservationNaturalistic observation is a research method commonly used by psychologists and other social scientists.
In unstructured observations, the researcher records all relevant behavior without system. There may be too much to record and the behaviors recorded may not necessarily be the most important so the approach is usually used as a pilot study to see what type of behaviors would be recorded. Compared with controlled observations it is like the difference between studying wild animals in a zoo and studying them in their natural habitat. With regard to human subjects, Margaret Mead used this method to research the way of life of different tribes living on islands in the South Pacific. Kathy Sylva used it to study children at play by observing their behavior in a playgroup in Oxfordshire. Strengths1
By being able to observe the flow of behavior in its own setting studies have greater ecological validity. 2. Like case studies, naturalistic observation is often used to generate new ideas. Because it gives the researcher the opportunity to study the total situation it often suggests avenues of inquiry not thought of before. Limitations1. These
observations are often conducted on a micro (small) scale and may lack a representative sample (biased in relation to age, gender, social class or ethnicity). This may result in the findings lacking the ability to be generalized to wider society. 2. Natural observations are less reliable as other variables cannot be controlled. This makes it difficult for another researcher to repeat the
study in exactly the same way. 3. A further disadvantage is that the researcher needs to be trained to be able to recognize aspects of a situation that are psychologically significant and worth further attention. 4. With observations, we do not have manipulations of variables (or control over extraneous variables) which means cause and effect relationships cannot be
established. Participant ObservationParticipant observation is a variant of the above (natural observations) but here the researcher joins in and becomes part of the group they are studying to get a deeper insight into their lives. If it were research on animals we would now not only be studying them in their natural habitat but be living alongside them as well! This approach was used by Leon Festinger in a famous study into a religious cult who believed that the end of the world was about to occur. He joined the cult and studied how they reacted when the prophecy did not come true. Participant observations can be either cover or overt. Covert is where the study is carried out 'undercover'. The researcher's real identity and purpose are kept concealed from the group being studied. The researcher takes a false identity and role, usually posing as a genuine member of the group. On the other hand, overt is where the researcher reveals his or her true identity and purpose to the group and asks permission to observe. Limitations1. It can be difficult to get time / privacy for recording. For example, with covert observations researchers can’t take notes openly as this would blow their cover. This means they
have to wait until they are alone and rely on their memory. This is a problem as they may forget details and are unlikely to remember direct quotations. 2. If the researcher becomes too involved they may lose objectivity and become bias. There is always the danger that we will “see” what we expect (or want) to see. This is a problem as they could selectively report information instead of noting everything they observe. Thus reducing the
validity of their data. Recording of DataWith controlled / structured observation studies an important decision the researcher has to make is how to classify and record the data. Usually this will involve a method of sampling. The three main sampling methods are:
How to reference this article:How to reference this article:McLeod, S. A. (2015, June 06). Observation methods. Simply Psychology. www.simplypsychology.org/observation.html Home | About Us | Privacy Policy | Advertise | Contact Us Simply Psychology's content is for informational and educational purposes only. Our website is not intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. © Simply Scholar Ltd - All rights reserved What type of research is observation?Observation research is a qualitative research technique where researchers observe participants' ongoing behavior in a natural situation. Depending on the type of observation research and the goal of the study, the market researcher will have varying levels of participation in the study.
Is observational research qualitative or quantitative?Observational research methods are usually considered as forms of qualitative research, because the data collected from observation is qualitative.
What type of qualitative research is observation?Qualitative observation is a research method in which researchers collect data using their five senses, sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing. It is a subjective method of gathering information as it depends on the researcher's sensory organs.
Is observation used in qualitative research?Observation in qualitative research “is one of the oldest and most fundamental research methods approaches. This approach involves collecting data using one's senses, especially looking and listening in a systematic and meaningful way” (McKechnie, 2008, p. 573).
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